Approaches
to Teaching Writing
There are several approaches to teaching writing that are
presented by (Raimes, 1983) as follows:
a-The Controlled-to-Free Approach
In the 1950s and early 1960, the audio-lingual method dominated
second-language learning This method emphasized speech and writing served to
achieve mastery of grammatical and syntactic forms. Hence teachers developed
and used techniques to enable student to achieve this mastery. The
controlled-to-free approach in is sequential: students are first given sentence
exercises, then paragraphs to copy or manipulate grammatically by changing
questions to statements, present to past, or plural to singular. They might
also change words to clauses or combine sentences. With these controlled
compositions, it is relatively easy to for students write and yet avoid errors,
which makes error correction easy. Students are allowed to try some free
composition after they have reached an intermediate level of proficiency. As
such, this approach stress on grammar, syntax, and mechanics. It emphasizes
accuracy rather than fluency or originality.
b-The Free-Writing Approach
This approach stresses writing quantity rather than quality.
Teachers who use this approach assign vast amounts of free writing on given
topics with only minimal correction. The emphasis in this approach is on
content and fluency rather than on accuracy and form. Once ideas are down on
the page, grammatical accuracy and organization follow. Thus, teachers may
begin their classes by asking students to write freely on any topic without
worrying about grammar and spelling for five or ten minutes. The teachers does
not correct these pieces of free writing. They simply read them and may comment
on the ideas the writer expressed. Alternatively, some students may volunteer
to read their own writing aloud to the class. Concern for “audience” and
“content” are seen as important in this approach.
c-The Paragraph-Pattern Approach
Instead of accuracy of grammar or fluency of content, the
Paragraph-Pattern-Approach stresses on organization. Students copy paragraphs
and imitate model passages. They put scrambled sentences into paragraph order.
They identify general and specific statements and choose to invent an
appropriate topic sentence or insert or delete sentences. This approach is
based on the principle that in different cultures people construct and organize
communication with each other in different ways.
d-The Grammar-Syntax-Organization Approach
This approach stresses on simultaneous work on more than one
composition feature. Teachers who follow this approach maintain that writing
can not be seen as composed of separate skills which are learned sequentially.
Therefore, student should be trained to pay attention to organization while
they also work on the necessary grammar and syntax. This approach links the
purpose of writing to the forms that are needed to convey message.
e-The Communicative Approach
This approach stresses the purpose of writing and the audience
for it. Student writers are encouraged to behave like writers in real life and
ask themselves the crucial questions about purpose and audience:
Why am I writing this?
Who will read it?
Who will read it?
Traditionally, the teacher alone has been the audience for
student writing. But some feel that writers do their best when writing is truly
a communicative act, with a writer writing for a real reader. As such, the
readership may be extended to classmate and pen pals.
f-The Process Approach
Recently, the teaching of writing has moved away from a
concentration on written product to an emphasis on the process of writing.
Thus, writers ask themselves:
How do I write this?
How do I get started?
How do I get started?
In this approach, students are trained to generate ideas for
writing, think of the purpose and audience, write multiple drafts in order to
present written products that communicate their own ideas. Teachers who use
this approach give students time to tray ideas and feedback on the content of
what they write in their drafts. As such, writing becomes a process of
discovery for the students as they discover new ideas and new language forms to
express them. Furthermore, learning to write is seen as a developmental process
that helps students to write as professional authors do, choosing their own
topics and genres, and writing from their own experiences or observations. A
writing process approach requires that teachers give students greater
responsibility for, and ownership of, their own learning. Students make
decisions about genre and choice of topics, and collaborate as they write.
During the writing process, students engage in pre-writing,
planning, drafting, and post-writing activities. However, as the writing
process is recursive in nature, they do not necessarily engage in these
activities in that order.
Task 2:
The production of a clear and communicative piece of writing
requires attention to the elements of writing tabulated below. Put check mark
in the appropriate columns to indicate whether the different approaches address
the elements of writing based on what you have read.
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Content
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Process
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Audience
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Word choice
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Organization
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Mechanics
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Grammar/
Syntax |
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Controlled- to Free
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Free-Writing
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Paragraph-
Pattern |
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Grammar-Syntax-
Organization |
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Communicative
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Activity 1: Simple Description with Visuals. (For cycles I
& II only)
Have students examine a picture and ask them to name the objects
in it. Then ask students to write a paragraph to describe the picture. The
procedure for the activity may be as follows:
Provide the class with a picture of a room such as the one below.
Ask students to label the objects in the picture and have them write a
paragraph to describe the picture. Provide students with expressions and
language structure if needed such as: “In the classroom there is “ and have
students complete the paragraph.
Activity 2: Completing a Description Paragraph. (For cycles
I & II only)
Have students examine a picture and complete a description
paragraph. The procedure for this activity may be as follows:
Examine the picture in Activity 1 and complete the following paragraph:
Paragraph:
Mary lives in a very nice room. In her room, there is a ———, ———, and a ———. There are also several———. There are no ———, but Mary does have some ———. She wants to get a ——— for her wall and a ——— for the desk this afternoon when she goes shopping.
Examine the picture in Activity 1 and complete the following paragraph:
Paragraph:
Mary lives in a very nice room. In her room, there is a ———, ———, and a ———. There are also several———. There are no ———, but Mary does have some ———. She wants to get a ——— for her wall and a ——— for the desk this afternoon when she goes shopping.
Activity 3: Completing a Description Paragraph: (For cycles
I & II only)
Function Words
Function Words
Give students a picture and have them complete a description by
supplying the prepositions and expressions required by the context.
The procedure for this activity may be as follows:
Have students examine the picture in Activity 1 and complete the following paragraph:
The procedure for this activity may be as follows:
Have students examine the picture in Activity 1 and complete the following paragraph:
This is a picture of Mary’s room. Her bed is ——— the window. ———
the bed and the window is a small chest of drawers. There is a bookcase
——— her bed on the ———. She has a radio that is ——— the book case, and she puts
her books ——— the book case ——— three shelves. ——— the room. She has a very
nice desk where she prepares her work for school.
Activity 4: Writing a Description from Questions. (For
cycles I & II only)
Have students examine a picture and use a set of questions as a
guide to write a short description of the picture.
The procedure for this activity may be as follows:
Examine the picture in Activity 1 and write a description of it, using the questions below as guide lines.
Questions :
1. Does Mary have a nice room?
2. What kind of things does she have in the room?
3. What do you like in Mary’s room?
4. Do you have a room like Mary’s room? Describe your room in a few sentences.
The procedure for this activity may be as follows:
Examine the picture in Activity 1 and write a description of it, using the questions below as guide lines.
Questions :
1. Does Mary have a nice room?
2. What kind of things does she have in the room?
3. What do you like in Mary’s room?
4. Do you have a room like Mary’s room? Describe your room in a few sentences.
Activity 5: Slash Sentences (For cycles I & II
only)
Give students a set of sentence cues and have them write a short
narrative paragraph.
The procedure for this activity may be as follows:
Make comlete sentences according to the model.
Model: The Smiths / Summer / in the country/ spend
The Smiths spend Summer in the country.
1. all / family / In the morning / to get up / arround / 8’oclock.
2. Mr. Smith / the kitchen / coffee / to prepare / to go down strairs.
3. his / wife / then / breakfast / to go outside / in / the garden.
The procedure for this activity may be as follows:
Make comlete sentences according to the model.
Model: The Smiths / Summer / in the country/ spend
The Smiths spend Summer in the country.
1. all / family / In the morning / to get up / arround / 8’oclock.
2. Mr. Smith / the kitchen / coffee / to prepare / to go down strairs.
3. his / wife / then / breakfast / to go outside / in / the garden.
Activity 6: Sentence Combining
Give students a set of propositions and have them combine them
into complete sentences:
The procedure for this activity may be as follows:
Provide students with set of propositions such as the ones below:
1. The man is tall.
2. The man has dark hair.
3. The man is standing by the door.
4. The man looks suspicious
Have students combine the propositions in one sentence.
The procedure for this activity may be as follows:
Provide students with set of propositions such as the ones below:
1. The man is tall.
2. The man has dark hair.
3. The man is standing by the door.
4. The man looks suspicious
Have students combine the propositions in one sentence.
Activity 7 : Composition based on oral interview.
Have students interview a partner and a composition telling what
they learned about the person they interviewed.
The procedure for this activity may be as follows:
Have students interview a partner a certain topics and have then write a composition to tell what they had learned about this partner sample topics:
1. Talk about yourself and your family (i.e., where are you from, where your family lives, your hobbies, etc…).
2. Talk about what you like and dislike about your school.
3. Describe a memorable event.
4. Describe your goals and future plans.
5. Describe a recent vacation.
The procedure for this activity may be as follows:
Have students interview a partner a certain topics and have then write a composition to tell what they had learned about this partner sample topics:
1. Talk about yourself and your family (i.e., where are you from, where your family lives, your hobbies, etc…).
2. Talk about what you like and dislike about your school.
3. Describe a memorable event.
4. Describe your goals and future plans.
5. Describe a recent vacation.
The following process writing activities can be used in
cycle I & II of Basic Education.
Pre-writing, the first stage in the writing process, begins long
before the writer puts thoughts into writing. The experiences, observations,
and interactions that students have prior to entering the classroom have an impact
upon what they will write and how they will write it. Within the classroom,
pre-writing prompts and activities can be integrated into the writing process
as scaffolds by teachers to help students generate ideas for their writing and
to practice the thinking skills inherent in the activity.
To initiate thinking and generate possible writing topics, it is
important for students to explore ideas for writing topics using a variety of
pre-writing strategies, such as the following:
- Brainstorming
- Constructing thought webs and graphic organizers
- Interviewing a person knowledgeable about the topic
- Engaging in peer or teacher-student discussions and conferences
- Listening to music
- Reading about and researching the topic
- Free writing or timed free writing about the topic
- Viewing media such as pictures, movies, and television
- Listing and categorizing information
- Reflecting upon personal experience
- Examining writing models
- Responding to literature
- Role playing and other drama techniques
- Asking the 5 Ws--who, what, where, when and why.
- Brainstorming
- Constructing thought webs and graphic organizers
- Interviewing a person knowledgeable about the topic
- Engaging in peer or teacher-student discussions and conferences
- Listening to music
- Reading about and researching the topic
- Free writing or timed free writing about the topic
- Viewing media such as pictures, movies, and television
- Listing and categorizing information
- Reflecting upon personal experience
- Examining writing models
- Responding to literature
- Role playing and other drama techniques
- Asking the 5 Ws--who, what, where, when and why.
To explore topics about which to write, the teacher may post
suggestions on the bulletin board for student reference. He/she may
invite students to add their own pre-writing strategies to ideas such as the
following:
1. Brainstorming about people, places, and feelings
Write down or tell a partner the names of people you could
describe, then quickly and briefly describe each one. Name several places you
have visited and list descriptive words for each place. List and describe some
memorable feelings you have had, and explain the situation in which they
occurred.
2. Talking and listening in pairs or groups
Take turns telling about an interesting person, thing, incident,
or object. Encourage the listeners to ask questions and add ideas. Record
possible writing topics or ideas as they arise during the discussion.
3. Looking at art
Study paintings, photographs, drawings, or sculpture in magazines
or art books. It may even be useful to take a trip to a local museum or art
gallery. Jot down notes and questions about the artwork, the artist and the
subject, and any topic ideas that come to mind during the observation. It may
help to talk over your information and ideas with a partner or small group. Explain
to a partner the stories in the art works.
4. Listening to music
Listen to music you like best or a variety of new and unfamiliar
music. Listen to tape recordings or to the radio, closing your eyes and letting
the music paint pictures in your mind. Record these images as you listen, or
turn off the music and quickly record your ideas. It may be helpful to tell the
story you have imagined to a partner or group.
5. Role playing
Pretend to be any character, ask peers to act as other
characters, and dramatize an event or incident, and what happened as a result
of that incident or event.
6. Observing with all senses
Be aware of all that is happening around you, in the classroom,
at home, in restaurants, in malls, and wherever you go. Listen closely to conversations
of the people you observe, and try to capture the details of their manners and
dress. Observe for issues, problems, or achievements in your community. Jot
down ideas and notes as you observe them or as soon as possible after your
observations.
7. Listing ideas and information
List such things as the activities that interest you, the sports
you play, the clubs that you belong to, and the community and world issues that
you know about from the media.
8. Reading
Read such things as nonfiction books, novels, magazines, stories,
newspapers, and poems. Jot down ideas that occur to you as you read and list
questions you might investigate further. Keep track of interesting vocabulary,
story plots, and characters.
9. Newspaper searches
Read the stories and captions that catch your interest. Jot down
ideas for writing a newspaper article or ideas that can be developed into other
kinds of writing.
10. Author visits
As the authors share their writing and discuss the craft of
writing, students gain further understanding of the writing process and
possibly get ideas for their own writing.
Pre-writing prompts or activities planned by the teacher can
serve as writing scaffolds for inexperienced writers who have difficulty
accessing their own feelings, ideas, experiences, and knowledge.
Teacher-planned pre-writing activities, such as the samples that follow, give
students a place to start and make them become aware of places from which to
get ideas in the future. Students who have a place to start with will be more motivated
to continue developing their ideas and their own writing voices.
Sample Pre-writing Activity #1
Time allotment (5-10 minutes)
Give each student any book or magazine to use (e.g., Readers'
Digest, anthologies). The teacher should have a selection also, in order to
model the process.
Have students open their books or magazines at any page and
choose a word at random—the first word that jumps off the page at them--and
record this as Word #1; close the book.
Continue this until each student has four words recorded.
Students then focus for about one minute on each word separately, and list all
their thoughts, ideas and associations that the word generates. Students then
begin to make connections among the four words and their lists of personal
associations by writing phrases, sentences, and ideas that demonstrate a
relationship among the words. Students now have had a writing warm-up and may
continue developing the ideas generated or bank these ideas for another day's
writing.
Sample Pre-writing Activity #2
Time allotment (5-12 minutes)
Teachers may request that students
bring pictures of people, or the teacher may supply them (photographs or
pictures clipped from magazines). Each picture should show several people in
sufficient detail to reveal size, facial expression, dress, and other facets of
character.
Quickly walk the students through this activity, question by question, so they record the first thoughts and reactions that the pictures generate, rather than dwelling too long on one question. The teacher should ask students to examine their pictures closely, and explain that they will need to use their imagination for the activity. Some questions the teacher might ask are:
- Who is the main character in the picture?
- What is an appropriate name for this character?
- How old is this character?
- What emotions is this character showing in the picture? Describe the evidence that you have for this (e.g., facial expression, gestures).
- What kind of work might the character do for a living? Give reasons to support your decision.
- What might the person be thinking or saying? What makes you imagine this?
- What other characteristics are revealed by the character's dress and stance?
- What might have happened before the picture was taken? What might happen next?
- How are the other characters in the picture related to the main character? What evidence makes you think so?
- What is the attitude of the main character to the other characters? What is the attitude of the other characters to the main character? What are some possible reasons for these attitudes?
- What might it be like to be the main character or one of the other characters?
Quickly walk the students through this activity, question by question, so they record the first thoughts and reactions that the pictures generate, rather than dwelling too long on one question. The teacher should ask students to examine their pictures closely, and explain that they will need to use their imagination for the activity. Some questions the teacher might ask are:
- Who is the main character in the picture?
- What is an appropriate name for this character?
- How old is this character?
- What emotions is this character showing in the picture? Describe the evidence that you have for this (e.g., facial expression, gestures).
- What kind of work might the character do for a living? Give reasons to support your decision.
- What might the person be thinking or saying? What makes you imagine this?
- What other characteristics are revealed by the character's dress and stance?
- What might have happened before the picture was taken? What might happen next?
- How are the other characters in the picture related to the main character? What evidence makes you think so?
- What is the attitude of the main character to the other characters? What is the attitude of the other characters to the main character? What are some possible reasons for these attitudes?
- What might it be like to be the main character or one of the other characters?
Instruct students to record ideas briefly, using phrases and
words rather than sentences. Students then may take the opportunity to develop their
ideas further, or save their notes and ideas for use at a later date.
Sample Pre-writing Activity #3
Time allotment (5-8 minutes)
- Prepare the students for free writing by explaining that they
should write whatever thoughts enter their head from the moment that the
teacher says "go" to the moment he/she says "stop", even if
it means writing and rewriting, I don't know what to write. I don't know what
to write. When the pen or pencil hits the paper it does not stop for pauses, erasures,
or corrections. Eventually, most students begin to focus and
the writing flows. Students then have the opportunity to
develop these pre-writing ideas further or save them for another day.
After students have generated some ideas, they must decide what
they will say about their chosen topic. Students develop an initial plan for
the product they will compose. As they do so, they must consider the
purpose, audience, point of view, and format because these elements
have implications for both the planning and the drafting of the written
product.
To develop an initial plan for drafting, students organize the
information they have generated during pre-writing by using such structures as
outlines, story frames, maps, diagrams, charts, and concept webs.
To consider purpose, students write to express ideas, feelings, emotions, and
opinions, and they must ask themselves, "What is my purpose for writing
this piece?" Some purposes for students’ writings are:
1. to express personal feelings or viewpoints
2. to imagine "What if ...?"
3. to narrate
4. to entertain and/or amuse
5. to describe
6. to inform or explain
7. to persuade or convince
8. to request
9. to inquire or question
10. to explore and experiment with ideas and formats
11. to clarify thinking.
1. to express personal feelings or viewpoints
2. to imagine "What if ...?"
3. to narrate
4. to entertain and/or amuse
5. to describe
6. to inform or explain
7. to persuade or convince
8. to request
9. to inquire or question
10. to explore and experiment with ideas and formats
11. to clarify thinking.
To consider audience, students must consider who they are writing for and students
must ask themselves, "Who is my intended audience?" Some possible
audiences are:
1. familiar, known audiences: self, friends, peers, family, teachers
2. extended, known audiences: community, student body, local media
3. extended, unknown audiences: wider range of media and other publications
1. familiar, known audiences: self, friends, peers, family, teachers
2. extended, known audiences: community, student body, local media
3. extended, unknown audiences: wider range of media and other publications
To consider point of view, students must determine from which point of
view their ideas or information will be expressed, so they need to ask
themselves, "Who is telling this story/describing the events?" Some
points of view for students’ consideration are:
1. physical point of view: where is the narrator in relation to the action?
2. objective and subjective point of view: what emotional involvement does the narrator have in relation to the situation?
3. personal point of view: who is the narrator of the story? (The narrator may take a first person, third person, or an all-knowing omniscient point of view.)
1. physical point of view: where is the narrator in relation to the action?
2. objective and subjective point of view: what emotional involvement does the narrator have in relation to the situation?
3. personal point of view: who is the narrator of the story? (The narrator may take a first person, third person, or an all-knowing omniscient point of view.)
To decide what information will be gathered and how it will most
effectively be gathered, students who decide that they need to conduct interviews or go
on field trips to gather information will need to brainstorm and construct a
list of questions. Students who require library research will need to
decide the types of resources and references to consult.
To consider format, students will use audience and purpose to determine format and
genre. They will have the opportunity to write in a variety of narrative,
descriptive, expository, and poetic formats. Their writings may include
formats and genres such as: advertisement, advice column,
autobiography/biography, comic strip, letter of complaint/request/inquiry,
diary/journal, readers theater/role play/monologue, book review, report,
fable/fairy tale, greeting card, game rules, directions, interview, news story,
poem/song, anecdote/personal experience story, sports column, short story, etc.
At this point in the process, the emphasis is on content and
meaning rather than on mechanics and conventions. This is the time for writers
to get down their ideas and thoughts, composing rough drafts based upon
pre-writing and planning activities and considerations. As they compose,
writers begin to determine what to include and exclude, and make initial
decisions about how these ideas will be organized. During the drafting stage of
the writing process, meaning begins to evolve.
To produce a first, rough draft, students record their ideas rapidly in order
to capture the essence of what they have to say. They do not have
to make any attempt to revise or edit at this point. They focus on talking to
the reader and begin to develop a personal style as their voices emerge.
To write subsequent drafts, students often accomplish their work by
crossing out, adding, and rearranging ideas directly on the page. The
students’ redrafting does not necessarily require an entire rewrite at this
time.
To reflect upon their own writing, students can conference with self, peers and
the teacher. Through conferencing, students can get constructive feedback
and support that may help them to shape their writings. A set of
questions or a checklist can be used to assist writers and conference partners
as they strive to help the writer make meaning clear.
Sample 1:
Self-Conference Checklist
As you write ... Ask
yourself some of these questions:
- How do I feel about what I've written so far?
- What is good that I can enhance?
- Is there anything about it that concerns me, does not fit, or seems wrong?
- What am I discovering as I write this piece?
- What surprises me? Where is it leading?
- What is my purpose?
- What is the one most important thing that I am trying to convey?
- How can I build this idea? Are there places that I wander away from my key idea?
- Who is my audience?
- How do I feel about what I've written so far?
- What is good that I can enhance?
- Is there anything about it that concerns me, does not fit, or seems wrong?
- What am I discovering as I write this piece?
- What surprises me? Where is it leading?
- What is my purpose?
- What is the one most important thing that I am trying to convey?
- How can I build this idea? Are there places that I wander away from my key idea?
- Who is my audience?
Sample
2: Teacher-Student Checklist
During the
teacher-student conference the teacher may as questions such as
- What is the part that you like best?
- Does it say what you want it to say?
- What do you mean by...?
- Where/when does your story take place?
- Are you satisfied with the beginning/ending? Why or why not?
- Does this sentence/word/phrase make sense to you?
- What reaction do you want your reader to have?
- How do you see your ideas being rearranged or changed? Why?
- Does it say what you want it to say?
- What do you mean by...?
- Where/when does your story take place?
- Are you satisfied with the beginning/ending? Why or why not?
- Does this sentence/word/phrase make sense to you?
- What reaction do you want your reader to have?
- How do you see your ideas being rearranged or changed? Why?
Sample 3: Steps For A
Peer Writing Conference
When peers are
conferencing
1.The writer decides how the written work will be shared.
Will it be:
- read silently by the conference partner(s)?
- read aloud by the writer?
- read aloud by the conference partner(s)?
- a combination of the above?
- read silently by the conference partner(s)?
- read aloud by the writer?
- read aloud by the conference partner(s)?
- a combination of the above?
2. The writer identifies what aspects of the written work
will be the focus of the conference (e.g., the beginning paragraph, figurative
language).
3.The conference partner states at least:
- one thing he/she considers that the writer has done well
- one thing he/she especially likes
- one suggestion which addresses the focus of the conference as identified by the writer. (It is useful to have students complete a written conference sheet to guide their responses, especially when the process is new to them.)
- one thing he/she considers that the writer has done well
- one thing he/she especially likes
- one suggestion which addresses the focus of the conference as identified by the writer. (It is useful to have students complete a written conference sheet to guide their responses, especially when the process is new to them.)
4. The writer retains the right to the written work and is
responsible for making the final decision about any changes.
To revise the draft for content and clarity of meaning, students will reorganize and sequence
relevant ideas, and add or delete details as they strive to make their meaning
clear. Revisions can take place to words, sentences, paragraphs, or the
whole piece (e.g., the writer may decide that the ideas would have more impact
as poetry instead of prose).
To edit the draft for mechanical and conventional concerns that detract from and obscure meaning,
students will proofread for accuracy and correctness in spelling, punctuation,
capitalization, grammar, and usage. Peer editing and editing partnerships
or groups can be established to assist students who are at this stage in the
process. The use of self and peer-editing checklists can be useful tools.
To focus purpose, audience, and point of view, and confirm
appropriateness of format, students have to reconsider and confirm the use of the
variables, which were pondered during the planning stage.
Sample 4: Revising
Checklist of a Descriptive Paragraph (Self- & Peer-Assessment, Primary
Level)
Writer's
Checklist
Partner’s Checklist
Yes
No Did I include an introduction, a body, and a
conclusion?
Yes No
Yes No Did I write a good topic sentence for each paragraph? Yes No
Yes No Did I include details that support each topic sentence? Yes No
Yes No Did I avoid repeating the same words over and over again? Yes No
Yes No Did I use my senses to describe my topic? Yes No
Yes No Did I use descriptive nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs? Yes No
Yes No Did I write a good topic sentence for each paragraph? Yes No
Yes No Did I include details that support each topic sentence? Yes No
Yes No Did I avoid repeating the same words over and over again? Yes No
Yes No Did I use my senses to describe my topic? Yes No
Yes No Did I use descriptive nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs? Yes No
Sample 5: Editing Checklist
of a Descriptive Paragraph (Self- & Peer-Assessment, Primary Level)
Writer's
Checklist
Partner’s Checklist
Yes No Did I spell all words correctly? Yes No
Yes No Did I indent the first line of every paragraph? Yes No
Yes No Did I capitalize the first word of every sentence? Yes No
Yes No Did I punctuate the end of each sentence correctly? Yes No
Yes No Did I avoid using run-on sentences? Yes No
Yes No Is my handwriting neat? Yes No
Yes No Is my title capitalized correctly? Yes No
Yes No (Add your question here) Yes No
Yes No Did I spell all words correctly? Yes No
Yes No Did I indent the first line of every paragraph? Yes No
Yes No Did I capitalize the first word of every sentence? Yes No
Yes No Did I punctuate the end of each sentence correctly? Yes No
Yes No Did I avoid using run-on sentences? Yes No
Yes No Is my handwriting neat? Yes No
Yes No Is my title capitalized correctly? Yes No
Yes No (Add your question here) Yes No
-
Post the major stages of a writing process (pre-writing, planning, drafting,
post-writing) and brief information about each so that students can determine
where they are at any time in the process.
- Help students develop criteria or tips for writing a particular genre or format (e.g., haiku, short story, letter), then post these on a bulletin board or have students record them in their notebooks for reference as they write.
- Set up a section of the classroom as a writing reference area and make available language resources such as dictionaries, thesauri, and grammar and usage texts. Encourage students to use these as needed individually or with peers and the teacher.
- Encourage students to use word-processing programs. This may be done in co-operation with teachers of Computer Science, Information Processing, or other areas of study where computers are used.
- Help students develop criteria or tips for writing a particular genre or format (e.g., haiku, short story, letter), then post these on a bulletin board or have students record them in their notebooks for reference as they write.
- Set up a section of the classroom as a writing reference area and make available language resources such as dictionaries, thesauri, and grammar and usage texts. Encourage students to use these as needed individually or with peers and the teacher.
- Encourage students to use word-processing programs. This may be done in co-operation with teachers of Computer Science, Information Processing, or other areas of study where computers are used.
When
students have an authentic audience and purpose, they want to rework their
written drafts, polishing them for presentation or publication. Going public
means taking a huge risk; the student's self-esteem is on the line, so the
decision about how and with whom to share their writing must be up to the
student writer. Teachers may encourage students to share certain pieces or
determine the number of pieces that students are required to share or publish
within a set time period, but ultimately the decision about which pieces to
share, and with whom, should be left up to the writer.
To
prepare a final, polished draft, students may write in legible handwriting or
use a word-processing program to prepare a polished written work. Then their
writings go to public through
1. Sharing
2. Publishing
3. Using a portfolio
1. Sharing
2. Publishing
3. Using a portfolio
Sharing
Students
may share their written work. Sharing is a useful post- writing activity
since it provides students with an immediate audience. Some examples of sharing
students’ writings include
1. The author's chair, which provides opportunity for students to share their writing aloud with the whole class;
2. Sharing in small groups or with a partner; and
3. Using bulletin board space assigned to a specific genre or to a class of students.
1. The author's chair, which provides opportunity for students to share their writing aloud with the whole class;
2. Sharing in small groups or with a partner; and
3. Using bulletin board space assigned to a specific genre or to a class of students.
At
times, students should be provided with opportunities to decide if they wish to
share their written work, and whether they will share in pairs, in small
groups, or with the whole class.
Publishing
Students
may choose to publish their writing. Some examples of publishing formats
include:
- Class booklets
- School or local newspapers
- Yearbook
- Writing contests
- Magazines
- Class booklets
- School or local newspapers
- Yearbook
- Writing contests
- Magazines
Using
a portfolio
To
decide if the written work will be placed in the student's assessment
portfolio, teachers can negotiate with students to generate guidelines about
the number and variety of pieces that they are required to place in their
portfolio for assessment and evaluation purposes. Contracts may be useful to
address individual student needs and abilities. Students should be involved in
making choices about which of their written pieces will become part of their
portfolios.
-
Discuss or develop with students the criteria for polished pieces. Post these
or provide them as handouts for students to refer to as needed.
- Provide opportunities for students to use computer word-processing programs to create final drafts.
- Have students share their final compositions with classmates or with others in the community, such as younger children or elderly people.
- Post or publish students' work in the classroom and provide opportunities, when appropriate, for students to submit to publishers outside the classroom.
- Provide opportunities for students to use computer word-processing programs to create final drafts.
- Have students share their final compositions with classmates or with others in the community, such as younger children or elderly people.
- Post or publish students' work in the classroom and provide opportunities, when appropriate, for students to submit to publishers outside the classroom.
At
some point during most writing classes, in a 5-10 minute mini-lesson (length
depends upon the procedure, concept, skill, or convention to be taught), the
teacher provides students with information necessary for their writing.
Mini-lessons about language usage and conventions such as spelling, sentence
structure, and punctuation are necessary; however, they should emerge from the
students' writing or the curriculum objectives, rather than being arbitrarily
determined by the teacher. It is important to allow time for students to
practice concepts introduced in mini-lessons within the context of their own
writing.
The
decision about what to teach in a mini-lesson depends upon the selected
objectives as well as upon the students' needs and interests. The following
lists provide examples of topics that may require mini-lessons.
Writing
Process Procedures
1.
pre-writing activities
2. writing rough drafts
3. self-reflection
4. participating in writing groups
5. peer and teacher conferences
6. writing folders and assessment portfolios
7. revising and editing final drafts
8. sharing and publishing.
2. writing rough drafts
3. self-reflection
4. participating in writing groups
5. peer and teacher conferences
6. writing folders and assessment portfolios
7. revising and editing final drafts
8. sharing and publishing.
Literary
Elements and Devices
1.
plot
2. characters
3. main idea/theme
4. setting
5. narrative hook
6. point of view
7. flashbacks
8. foreshadowing
9. comparisons (e.g., analogies, metaphors, similes)
10. personification
11. alliteration
12. rhyme and repetition.
2. characters
3. main idea/theme
4. setting
5. narrative hook
6. point of view
7. flashbacks
8. foreshadowing
9. comparisons (e.g., analogies, metaphors, similes)
10. personification
11. alliteration
12. rhyme and repetition.
Language
Conventions and Mechanics
1.
writing sentences
2. varying sentence structure (adding, deleting, substituting, moving, and combining)
3. writing opening and concluding paragraphs
4. writing descriptive paragraphs
5. punctuating items in a series
6. using the apostrophe
7. choosing titles
8. punctuating dialogue
9. selecting appropriate words (e.g., to show fear, suspense, bravery, or other characteristics).
2. varying sentence structure (adding, deleting, substituting, moving, and combining)
3. writing opening and concluding paragraphs
4. writing descriptive paragraphs
5. punctuating items in a series
6. using the apostrophe
7. choosing titles
8. punctuating dialogue
9. selecting appropriate words (e.g., to show fear, suspense, bravery, or other characteristics).
Writing
Formats and Genre
1.
friendly or business letter
2. news article
3. short story
4. haiku poetry
5. personal experience narrative
6. science fiction.
2. news article
3. short story
4. haiku poetry
5. personal experience narrative
6. science fiction.
Some
mini-lessons may be planned for the whole class because the teacher has
determined the need for students to have specific information that supports
their learning or the unit of study. Other mini-lessons may be provided to
individuals or small groups as the need arises. If the concept to be taught is
complex, the teacher should provide instruction in steps, allowing students the
opportunity to practise each step before putting them all together.
Teachers
should keep records (e.g., lesson plan sheets, anecdotal notes, checklists) of
mini-lesson topics and to whom they were presented. Students may also be
required to keep records of mini-lessons received (e.g., handouts, notes,
checklists), for future reference.
To
support and manage a writing process workshop, teachers should take time to
ensure that students understand how the classroom structure and instructional
activities work together. It is important to create an atmosphere that allows
and encourages students to feel safe taking risks in order to develop a
community of writers who support each other and share with each other (the
teacher is a part of this community).
The
teacher should be sure that
- desks are arranged in clusters or tables are used to accommodate four to six students.
- resources which will assist students as they write (e.g., dictionaries, language study texts, literature as models, and samples of student writing) are provided on a specified shelf.
- the writing process information is displayed on bulletin boards.
- the areas designated for specific activities (e.g., peer conferences, writing and publishing tasks) are set in the classroom.
- desks are arranged in clusters or tables are used to accommodate four to six students.
- resources which will assist students as they write (e.g., dictionaries, language study texts, literature as models, and samples of student writing) are provided on a specified shelf.
- the writing process information is displayed on bulletin boards.
- the areas designated for specific activities (e.g., peer conferences, writing and publishing tasks) are set in the classroom.
Of
course, the teacher plays an interactive role and builds scaffolds as needed.
He/she should model the various writing formats and conventions of the writing
process, and provide the needed help as each student is writing. As a member of
the community of writers, the teacher also writes and shares his/her writing
with the students. For instance, while the students are engaged in
pre-writing, the teacher may do her/his writing on a chart for the students to
observe. This models the process, as well as the specific format or conventions
being used.
การเขียน หมายถึง การถ่ายทอดความรู้ ความรู้สึกนึกคิด
เรื่องราว
ตลอดจนประสบการณ์ต่างๆไปสู้ผู้อื่นโดยใช้ตัวอักษษเป็นเครื่องมือในการถ่ายทอด
การเขียนเป็นวิธีการสื่อสารที่สำคัญในการถ่ายทอดความรู้ ความคิด
และประสบการณ์ เพื่อสื่อไปยังผู้รับได้อย่างกว้างไกล
นอกจากนั้นการเขียนยังมีคุณค่าในการบันทึกเป็นข้อมูลหลักฐานให้ศึกษาได้ยาวนาน
.
จุดประสงค์ของการเขียน
การเขียนทั่วไปมีจุดประสงค์ดังนี้
01. เพื่อบอกเล่าเรื่องราว เช่น เหตุการณ์ ประสบการณ์ ประวัติ ฯลฯ
01. เพื่อบอกเล่าเรื่องราว เช่น เหตุการณ์ ประสบการณ์ ประวัติ ฯลฯ
02. เพื่ออธิบายความหรือคำ เช่น
การออกกำลังกาย การทำอาหาร คำนิยามต่างๆ ฯลฯ
03. เพื่อโฆษณาจูงใจ เช่น
โฆษณาสินค้า ภาพยนตร์ รายการโทรทัศน์ ฯลฯ
04. เพื่อปลุกใจ เช่น บทความ
สารคดี เพลงปลุกใจ ฯลฯ
05. เพื่อแสดงความคิดเห็น
06. เพื่อสร้างจินตนาการ เช่น
เรื่องสั้น นิยาย นวนิยาย ฯลฯ
07. เพื่อล้อเลียน เช่น
บทความการเมือง เศรษฐกิจ ฯลฯ
08. เพื่อประกาศแจ้งให้ทราบ เช่น
ประกาศของทางราชการ ประกาศรับสมัครงาน ฯลฯ
09. เพื่อวิเคราะห์ เช่น
การเขียนวิเคราะห์สถานการณ์บ้านเมือง วิเคราะห์วรรณกรรม ฯลฯ
10. เพื่อวิจารณ์ เช่น
วิจารณ์การทำงานของรัฐบาล วิจารณ์ภาพยนตร์ วิจารณ์หนังสือ ฯลฯ
11. เพื่อเสนอข่าวสารและเหตุการณ์ที่น่าสนใจ
12. เพื่อกิจธุระต่างๆ เช่น จดหมาย
ธนาณัติ การกรอกแบบรายการ ฯลฯ
จุดประสงค์ของการเขียนคือสิ่งที่ผู้เขียนต้องคำนึงว่า
ในการเขียนงานเขียนแต่ละครั้งนั้นต้องการเขียนเพื่อสื่อเรื่องใด
โดยผู้เขียนต้องใช้ความรู้และประสบการณ์ รวมทั้งหลักการเขียนประกอบการเขียน
เพื่อให้การเขียนเพื่อการสื่อสารนั้นๆบรรลุจุดประสงค์ที่ตั้งไว้
.
หลักการเขียน
เนื่องจากหลักการเขียนเป็นทักษะที่ต้องเอาใจใส่ฝึกฝนอย่างจริงจัง
เพื่อให้เกิดความรู้ความชำนาญ และป้องกันความผิดพลาด ดังนั้น
ผู้เขียนจึงจำเป็นต้องใช้หลักในการเขียน ดังต่อไปนี้
1. มีความถูกต้อง คือ ข้อมูลถูกต้อง
ใช้ภาษาได้ถูกต้องเหมาะสมตามกาลเทศะ
2. มีความชัดเจน คือ ใช้คำที่มีความหมายชัดเจน
รวมถึงประโยคและถ้อยคำสำนวน เพื่อให้ผู้อ่านเข้าใจได้ตรงตามจุดประสงค์
3. มีความกระชับและเรียบง่าย คือ
รู้จักเลือกใช้ถ้อยคำธรรมดาเข้าใจง่าย ไม่ฟุ่มเฟือย เพื่อให้ได้ใจความชัดเจน
กระชับ ไม่ทำให้ผู้อ่านเกิดความเบื่อหน่าย
4. มีความประทับใจ โดยการใช้คำให้เกิดภาพพจน์
อารมณ์และความรู้สึกประทับใจ มีความหมายลึกซึ้งกินใจ ชวนติดตามให้อ่าน
5. มีความไพเราะทางภาษา คือ ใช้ภาษาสุภาพ
มีความประณีตทั้งสำนวนภาษาและลักษณะเนื้อหา อ่านแล้วไม่รู้สึกขัดเขิน
6. มีความรับผิดชอบ คือ
ต้องแสดงความคิดเห็นอย่างสมเหตุสมผล
มุ่งให้เกิดความรู้และทัศนคติอันเป็นประโยชน์แก่ผู้อื่น
นอกจากหลักการเขียนที่จำเป็นต่อการเขียนแล้ว สิ่งที่มีความจำเป็นอีกประการหนึ่งคือกระบวกการคิดกับกระบวนการเขียนที่จะต้องดำเนินควบคู่ไปกับหลักการเขียน เพื่อที่จะทำให้สามารถเขียนได้ดียิ่งขึ้น
นอกจากหลักการเขียนที่จำเป็นต่อการเขียนแล้ว สิ่งที่มีความจำเป็นอีกประการหนึ่งคือกระบวกการคิดกับกระบวนการเขียนที่จะต้องดำเนินควบคู่ไปกับหลักการเขียน เพื่อที่จะทำให้สามารถเขียนได้ดียิ่งขึ้น
.
กระบวนการคิดกับกระบวนการเขียน
กระบวนการเคิดกับกระบวนการเขียนนั้นมีความสัมพันธ์กัน
เนื่องจากการเขียนงานเขียนทุกประเภทต้องใช้ความคิด ต้องสร้างสรรค์ วิเคราะห์
กลั่นกรอง เรียบเรียงให้ดีเสียก่อน แล้วจึงลงมือเขียน
อันจะทำให้การเขียนนั้นๆสำเร็จลงด้วยดี
กระบวนการคิด
1. คิดให้ตรงจุด หมายถึง คิดถึงจุดประสงค์ที่สำคัญเพียงจุดเดียว
โดยการคิดให้อยู่ในวงจำกัด การคิดให้ตรงจุดมีดังนี้
..........1) คิดในหัวข้อที่จำกัด ไม่กว้างเกินไป จำกัดขอบเขตของเนื้อหาให้ชัดเจน
..........2) คิดเฉพาะสิ่งที่รู้ เพราะจะทำให้คิดได้ดี คิดอย่างชำนาญ มีประสิทธิภาพ
..........1) คิดในหัวข้อที่จำกัด ไม่กว้างเกินไป จำกัดขอบเขตของเนื้อหาให้ชัดเจน
..........2) คิดเฉพาะสิ่งที่รู้ เพราะจะทำให้คิดได้ดี คิดอย่างชำนาญ มีประสิทธิภาพ
2. คิดให้เป็นระเบียบ หมายถึง
การจัดลำดับความคิด มีดังนี้
..........1) จัดลำดับเรื่องราว คือ การจัดลำดับว่าเหตุการณ์ใดเกิดก่อนเกิดหลัง
..........2) จัดลำดับสถานที่ คือ เขียนรายละเอียดของสถานที่ให้ตรงตามความเป็นจริง ไม่วกไปวนมา
..........3) จัดลำดับตามเหตุผล คือ มีเหตุแล้วต้องมีผลตามมา หรือการกล่าวว่าผลที่เกิดขึ้นมาจากสาเหตุใด
..........1) จัดลำดับเรื่องราว คือ การจัดลำดับว่าเหตุการณ์ใดเกิดก่อนเกิดหลัง
..........2) จัดลำดับสถานที่ คือ เขียนรายละเอียดของสถานที่ให้ตรงตามความเป็นจริง ไม่วกไปวนมา
..........3) จัดลำดับตามเหตุผล คือ มีเหตุแล้วต้องมีผลตามมา หรือการกล่าวว่าผลที่เกิดขึ้นมาจากสาเหตุใด
3. คิดให้กระชับและชัดเจน คือ
ต้องมีความคิดหลักเพียงอย่างเดียว เพื่อให้ผู้อ่านสามารถจับประเด็นได้
และความคิดนั้นต้องสามารถทำให้ผู้อ่านสื่อได้ตรงกับความคิดของผู้เขียน โดยไม่สับสน
เช่น ผู้เขียนต้องการเสนอความคิดเกี่ยวกับคุณค่าของการประหยัด
ต้องทำให้ผู้อ่านอ่านแล้วเห็นคุณค่าของการประหยัดอย่างแท้จริง
โดยไม่เห็นแตกต่างออกไป
นอกจากนี้
สิ่งที่ผู้เขียนต้องคำนึงถึงเสมอก่อนจะลงมือเขียนเรื่องใด ก็คือ มารยาทในการเขียน
เนื่องจากงานเขียนบางประเภท หรือบางเรื่องอาจก่อให้เกิดความเสียหายในอนาคตได้
ฉะน้น เพื่อป้องกันความเนียหายที่จะเกิดขึ้น
ผู้เขียนจึงจำเป็นต้องเขียนอย่างมีมารยาท
ไม่มีความคิดเห็น:
แสดงความคิดเห็น